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French Studies 2005 59(2):173-188; doi:10.1093/fs/kni137
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© The Author 2005. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for French Studies. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oupjournals.org

Where poetry points: deixis and poetry's ‘you’ in Éluard and Desnos

HUGH HOCHMAN

REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, OREGON

The struggle in poetics between the textual hermeticism of semiotic readings, on the one hand, and materialist theories of reference, on the other, has been a thorny issue for theorists of the lyric for some time. Taking up the question of whether or not poetic texts open on to a world of referents, this article considers deictics (words for showing or indicating) in poems by Paul Éluard and Robert Desnos, recalling Émile Benveniste's inclusion of the personal pronouns I and you, along with demonstratives, under the rubric of indicateurs. Specifically, the article examines the function of words such as this, that and you and looks into the possibility that poems are always addressed to their reader and therefore mean you in the strongest sense possible. Poems do not refer to the world mentioned on the level of their themes or fiction but rather perpetually refer to relationships they sustain with the reader. In this sense, the reader's understanding or interpretation is an extension of a poem's addressivity, a kind of intimacy whereby the reader manages to meet the requirements of love and desire according to a uniquely discursive reality. It is precisely in understanding how a poem's semiotic operations carry within them their own justification that the reader fleshes out the addressee or the you of the text.


1 Paul Éluard, OEuvres complètes, I, ed. by Marcelle Dumas and Lucien Scheler (Paris, Gallimard, 1990), p. 143, © Gallimard. Future references to Éluard will be to this edition and will be indicated in the text.

2 The term ‘deixis’, of course, comes from the Greek word for ‘showing’ or ‘indicating’. On deixis, see Daniel Bergez, Violaine Gérard, Jean-Jacques Robrieux, Vocabulaire de l'analyse littéraire (Paris, Dunod, 1994), p. 57: ‘A priori, parce qu'ils ne sont lisibles qu'en référence à la situation d'énonciation, les déictiques sont des embrayeurs (ils manifestent dans l'énoncé la présence du locuteur, sujet de l'énonciation)’. In Problèmes de linguistique générale I (Paris, Gallimard, 1982), Benveniste places demonstratives, the personal pronouns ‘you’ and ‘I’, as well as adverbs of time and place under the term ‘indicateurs’ (p. 253). It is this inclusive definition of deixis that I shall rely on here.

3 p. 254.

4 La Poésie moderne et la structure d'horizon (Paris, PUF, 1989), p. 192. Collot calls personal pronouns ‘pure référence’, by which he means pure referentiality without determinate referent, and points out that critics feel compelled to ‘remplir ce vide, de réduire cet écart, au lieu de chercher à quelle nécessité répond cette construction de sens sur l'abîme d'une référence indéterminée’ (p. 195).

5 p. 254.

6 Célébration de la poésie (Paris, Verdier, 2001), p. 186.

7 Quoted in Meschonnic, p. 187.

8 Meschonnic, p. 251.

9 p. 253.

10 Guillaume Apollinaire, OEuvres poétiques, ed. by Marcel Adéma and Michel Décaudin (Paris, Gallimard, 1999), p. 63.

11 ‘Lecture de "Chantre"’, in Relire ‘Alcools’, ed. by Michel Décaudin (Paris, Lettres Modernes, 1996), p. 73.

12 The Reach of Poetry (West Lafayette, Purdue University Press, 1995), p. 9.

13 Meschonnic undermines the distinction between epic and lyric by arguing that, where poetry is concerned, ‘l'écoute est son voyage’ (p. 251, my emphasis).

14 La Poésie malgré tout (Paris, Mercure de France, 1996), p. 19.

15 Le Livre et ses adresses: Mallarmé, Ponge, Valéry, Blanchot (Paris, Méridiens Klincksieck, 1986), p. 13.

16 p. 24.

17 ‘Poetic Address and Intimate Reading: The Offered Hand’, Literary Imagination: The Review of the Association of Literary Scholars and Critics, 2.2 (2000), 1820 (p. 189).

18 On the voice of Desnos, see Katharine Conley, ‘Le Surréalisme médiatisé de Robert Desnos’, in Desnos pour l'an 2000 (Paris, Gallimard, 2000). Conley calls Desnos ‘le poète surréaliste le plus identifié à la voix’ (p. 24). The connection between love and poetry in Éluard has not been lost on his commentators. See, for instance, Jacques Gaucheron, Paul Éluard ou la fidélité à la vie (Pantin, Le Temps des cerises, 1995): ‘L'amour a la parole, l'amour existe par la parole, et cette parole ne peut être que poétique, c'est en vérité un dogme de sa poésie’ (pp.217–18). See also Michel Ballabriga, ‘Un poète sémioticien’, Champs du signe, 1 (1991). Ballabriga notes in the asyndeton of the title L'Amour la poésie ‘une contiguïté maximale, une sorte d'équivalence de notions’ (p. 59).

19 In ‘La Rhétorique facile chez Desnos’, in Desnos pour l'an 2000, Gérard Gasarian remarks that ‘à mi-chemin des figures abstraites et des personnes concrètes, il y a "toi"’ (p. 195).

20 Robert Desnos, Corps et biens (Paris, Gallimard, 1994), p. 102, © Gallimard. Future references to this edition will be indicated in the text.

21 p. 192.

22 On Mallarmé's ‘Sur les bois oubliés’ from Tombeaux, Vincent Kaufmann writes: ‘au geste rituel et communautaire de la Fête des Morts, le discours de la morte oppose un autre geste, un acte de parole singulier, qui n'est lié à aucune circonstance précise, et par conséquent réitérable’. ‘A ce titre’, Kaufmann continues, ‘le poème propose donc une sorte de contrat d'échange au lecteur qui surgit avec la disparition de l'époux’ (p. 50).

23 I am indebted here and throughout to William Waters's argument concerning Keats's poem ‘The Living Hand’. Looking to tease out ‘the haunting power’ of poems (p. 193), Waters explains that in order to ‘haunt by means of a poem, one must have readers. What this poem requires, in a way of looking at it, is an other, a "you" to haunt. It demands the presence of a reader as a poem has seldom demanded it. And to my way of thinking, who that reader is is much less important than that a reader be there, becoming absorbed in reading, suspending his or her empirical life’ (p. 198).

24 According to Collot, this double gesture typifies the nature of poetry. ‘Nous retrouvons ici le paradoxe fondamental de la référence poétique, qui fait disparaître son objet pour mieux faire apparaître l'énigme de son apparition. Dans le poème les indicateurs n'ont pas de contenu précis; mais faute de cette "signification indiquée" que leur conférerait une relation immédiate à un contexte d'énonciation, ils prennent toute leur signification "indicative": ils signifient l'acte même d'indiquer’ (p. 207).

25 Corps et biens, pp. 98–99.

26 See Marie-Claire Dumas, Étude de ‘Corps et biens’ de Robert Desnos (Geneva, Slatkine, 1984), p. 91: ‘[le "tu"] ne prend ni nom ni corps; il n'est, à vrai dire, que le pronom interpellé par le "je" et qui ne donne à aucun moment de réponse’.

27 See Roger Dadoun, ‘Présentation’, Cahier de l'Herne: Robert Desnos, ed. by Marie-Claire Dumas (Paris, Éditions de l'Herne, 1987). Dadoun comments on Desnos's death — as a result of internment in a concentration camp — and the way in which the poet's declaration ‘Oui, oui! Robert Desnos, poète français, c'est moi! C'est moi!’ speaks not for the poet but for all the silent dead. ‘Par la brèche, par la trouée du nom de la fosse commune’, observes Dadoun, ‘remontent les ombres des morts anonymes, appelant sur elles la lumière d'une nomination. Que l'une de ces ombres, nommée Robert Desnos, perce l'ombre, la nuit, l'oubli, en proférant son nom — comment serait-il alors possible de ne pas se mettre à l'écoute du hurlement silencieux de toutes ces ombres qui se pressent et font masse autour du poète, et qui demandent, exigent que leur soit restitué leur nom propre?’ (p. 20).

28 p. 37.

29 Kaufmann, p. 38.

30 Kaufmann, p. 36.

31 L'Amour du nom: essai sur le lyrisme et la lyrique amoureuse (Paris, Corti, 1997), p. 48.

32 p. 50.

33 ’L'amour heureux’, argues Gaucheron, ‘passionne la vie, il provoque l'imagination, il est poésie, il érotise le monde réel’ (p. 215).

34 ‘Greimas, Freud, and the Story of Trouvère Lyric’, in Lyric Poetry: Beyond New Criticism, ed. by Chaviva Hosek and Patricia Parker (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 105.

35 OEuvres complètes (Paris, Gallimard, 1983), p. 159.

36 Though I am here interested in how a body that casts no shadow figures poetic language, it is worth noting that a common thematic reading of Éluard cites the mystical status of women. In her introduction to Capitale de la douleur, ed. by Vera Daniel (Oxford, Blackwell, 1985), Vera Daniel, for example, has argued that if ‘the body of the loved one is often evoked, it is spiritualized’ (p. xxxix). Also pertinent is Daniel's mention of ‘transcendent love existing in absolute time’ (p. xl).

37 p. 100.

38 ‘Lyrical Voice in Contemporary Theory’, in Lyric Poetry: Beyond New Criticism, ed. by Chaviva Hosek and Patricia Parker (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 57.

39 Poésie, etcetera: ménage (Paris, Stock, 1995), p. 77.

40 See Steven Winspur, ‘Langage cuit et l'idéal du texte performatif’, in Cahier de l'Herne: Robert Desnos. Winspur argues that this problem is acute in the case of surrealist texts, asking: ‘est-ce que les textes surréalistes nous disent quelque chose, étant donnée que l'écriture surréaliste attaque les règles mêmes du langage qui rendent possible toute communication?’ (p. 101). Winspur answers this question by showing how in poetic texts description is replaced by ‘la nature performative du langage littéraire — autrement dit, sa capacité de produire des propositions qui sont valables non parce qu'elles rattachent à des vérités extra-textuelles, mais parce que l'acte même de produire ces énoncés assure leur justesse’ (p. 106).

41 Roubaud, p. 96.

42 In Philosophical Investigations, trans. by G. E. M. Anscombe (New York, Macmillan, 1968), paragraph 9, Wittgenstein shows how deictics bring us quickly to the limits of ostensive definitions: ‘Are "there" and "this" taught ostensively? — Imagine how one might perhaps teach their use. One will point to places and things — but in this case the pointing occurs in the use of the words too and not merely in learning the use’.


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